Module 2.3

Module 2.3  

 PBS Misunderstood Minds

Experiences of different learning disabilities:

            The introduction to learning disabilities involved activities demonstrating the experience of students with visual, auditory and attention problems. While I attempted the activities I became frustrated that I did not have enough time to complete the task. I would then repeat the task hoping I would do better the second or third time, but I did not always improve with the increased efforts which only lead to further frustration.

Attention: Basics, Difficulties and Responses

            Attention is an elaborate neurocognitive process that involves categorizing and organizing all of the stimuli around us while deciding what is important to focus on. While it has been described as a lack of attention it may actually involve the duration of attention to the task at hand. There is not the right amount of time given (too much or too little) to the task. Three patterns of behavior are indicators of ADHD; inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Since all people experience a lack of attention at times the patterns of behavior must first appear before the age of seven, continue for six months, and cause problems in two areas involving either school, home, work, or social settings. Dr. Mel Levine sees attention as involving three control systems: mental energy that controls the energy supply, processing that selects, prepares and interprets information, and production that controls the student output. Some students may demonstrate problems in all systems or strengths and weaknesses between the systems.

            The mental energy system has four controls; alertness, sleep and arousal balance, mental effort, and performance consistency that all help regulate and distribute the energy to focus on a task and help control behavior. The processing system involves five controls; saliency determination (selecting what is important to focus on is); depth and detail of processing; cognitive activation (tying new information to prior knowledge); focal maintenance; and satisfaction control. The production system involves previewing; facilitation and inhibition (the ability to exercise restraint); pacing or speed of tasks; self-monitoring; and reinforceability (using previous experience to guide current behavior and tasks).

            Little in known of the cause of ADHD, but it is believed to be caused by chemical or structural problems in the brain due to environmental toxins, drugs, and genetics. It is important to create collaboration between the home and school. As the child gets older it is also important to build collaboration and a support system for them at school. I have found at the high school level that the child needs to takes “ownership” of their disability. The student needs to be able to say, “I have ADHD and these are my strengths and weaknesses and this is what I need to do to help myself.” They also need a lot of encouragement reminding them they can do it. There are many possible strategies for student with ADHD most using alternative approaches to learning.  Finding the best strategies involves observing a child and identifying their strengths and weaknesses and as Dr. Levine describes it, understanding their control systems.

Reading: Basics, Difficulties and Responses

            Reading is a complex task that involves several processes. Reading difficulties begins with a breakdown in one of the physical, neurological or cognitive processes. Since so many processes are involved in reading, finding the problem can be difficult. Reading is sequential and involves decoding, comprehension, and retention. A child must be able to decode words automatically to read fluently. When one reads fluently, they can focus on the meaning of whole

words and sentences. When one understands what they have read they can organize and summarize their understanding with their prior knowledge and store it for future use.

            Eighty-five percent of learning disabilities are in language and reading. While reading problems are neurological and will not go away, strategies can be taught. The earlier the intervention(s) is implemented the more likely a child can learn to read on grade level.

Writing: Basics, Difficulties and Responses

            Writing is a sequential process that requires combining physical and cognitive processes. Writing disabilities not only involve difficulties in writing down what one knows but also in note taking and other skills needed to keep up with the pace of the classroom. Dr. Levine breaks writing into six stages by age of development. The first stage, imitation occurs around kindergarten and first grade, a child pretends to write, starts to understand organization of letters in a line, and begins developing fine motor skills. At stage two, graphic presentation, occurring around first and second grade, a child can print letters, is aware of their appearance and compares it to others, and uses invented spelling. In progressive incorporation, stage three occurring in late second to fourth grade, a child writes about their experiences without planning. They begin writing in cursive, revising their work and understanding the rules of capitalization, punctuation, syntax and grammar. Fourth through seventh grade includes the fourth phase, automatization, where the child can apply rules of spelling, and punctuation, write at the level of their speech, review and assess their own writing, and write in stages by incorporating outlines and doing multiple revisions. Stage five called elaboration, around seventh to ninth grade, students can express their viewpoint and begin writing about problem solving using their own thoughts and  ideas from more than one source, they will now use transitional words and can write at a level that may exceed their own speech. The last stage, personalization-diversification, from ninth and beyond, students can write in different styles, write more creatively, vary length and complexity of sentences, increase vocabulary use and develop their own style.

            Neurodevelopmental functions needed for writing involve graphomotor skills, attention, language, memory, and high-order cognition. Difficulties can be caused by a variety of things. 

Most strategies involve alternative approaches and repetitive attempts and practice.  I have found with more severe problems and with older children assistive technology, such as a computer, is a god-send. One of my students, a great cartoonist, is also dysgraphic. While he can draw he finds writing difficult. Another student who struggled even on a computer took up the guitar to improve his motor skills.  

Math: Basics, Difficulties and Responses

            The neurological functions involved in math include memory, language, attention, temporal-sequential ordering, high-order cognition and spatial ordering. While it is believed you either know math or you do not, many students have strengths in some areas and weaknesses in others. Math requires some skills in sequence, others are independent. Since math is not necessarily learned in a sequence, a natural development is difficult to chart making math difficulties even harder to diagnosis.

            Expects believe math disabilities occur within five different skill types. These deficits can be independent of each other or in combination. The first is incomplete mastery of number facts.  It is important for a student to be efficient in their math facts to advance to higher levels. Computational weakness involves having a good understanding of concepts but errors are made in computing. Difficulty transferring knowledge is the inability to connect the abstract and conceptual aspects of math. Making connections is the inability to comprehend the relationship between numbers and the quantities they represent. If a student has not made the connection it makes it harder for them to recall the information and to apply it in new situations. Incomplete understanding of the language of math involves knowing language that is often not heard outside of math classrooms and showing difficultly following spoken and written instructions found in word problems. Difficulty comprehending the visual and spatial aspects and perceptual difficulties is the inability to visualize math concepts effectively. Although this is rare it is probably the most severe of the math disabilities.

            Strategies for a student with math disabilities often use alternative approaches to learning materials. Checking work can help as well as using research-based methods designed to strengthen specific weaknesses.

Thoughts:

            I found the website Misunderstood Minds easy to use, full of information for professionals, teachers, parents and students. Even though I have done simulations of learning disabilities before, I found these enjoyable, enlightening and frustrating (something our students go through daily).

Public Broadcasting Systems (PBS). Misunderstood Minds retrieved February 23, 2011 from             http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/misunderstoodminds/intro.html.

LD Online

            A learning disability is a neurological disorder that can not be cured and will last throughout ones lifetime. One out of every seven Americans has a learning disability and they often run in families. Eighty percent of people with learning disabilities have difficulties in reading. With support and intervention children can learn strategies to be successful in school and later in careers.

            There are five common learning disabilities. Dyslexia, a language-based disability; dyscalculia, a mathematical disability; dysgraphia, a writing disability; auditory and visual processing disorder, a sensory disability in which a person has problems understanding language; and non-verbal learning disabilities, involving our executive functioning skills.

            When a question arises that a child is having difficulties it is usually due to atypical developmental milestones. Children generally meet certain milestones in cognition, language, motor coordination, social interaction, and adaptive behavior. There are differences in the rate that students reach these milestones and often they will show strengths and weaknesses in different areas. Cultural and environmental factors may also play a part in determining if a milestone is developmentally achieved or not. A parent or teacher usually becomes concerned when there are marked differences in the time at which skills emerge, the sequence in which the skill emerges, and/or the quality of the skill level and how it affects the student’s overall functioning.

            If the parent or teacher suspects problems they should be careful in recording the dates and times of the occurrence, duration and frequency of the behavior, the type of activity involved, the setting the activity was in, and the students interaction with their peers and others.

Thoughts:

            I loved this website. It is full of current articles, recommended books, links to topics and a question and answer section. While I find a lot of sites are geared more for the younger child I found great information and advice for high schools such as taking the SAT and assisting students with foreign language issues. I also enjoyed the different video stories about how people’s life has been effected living with a learning disability. 

http://www.ldonline.org/ldbasics.

Module 2.2 Using Learning Strategies Instruction to Enhance Student Learning

Module 2.2 Using Learning Strategies Instruction to Enhance Student Learning

1. Strategies

Strategies help students perform tasks more quickly and efficiently.  Strategies have been proven to help student performance. When students are efficient they complete assignments in a timely manner and demonstrate fluency in tasks and thought. When student perform well they have higher self-esteem and confidence. Not all children can develop their own learning strategies and must be taught them.

2. Strategic Learners Characteristics

Strategic learners are able to analyze a problem and develop a plan to solve it.  They can organize multiple goals and switch between simple and complex tasks.  When tasks get difficult strategic learners can develop new strategies on their own to complete the task.  Strategic learners have effective self-regulation strategies, can review their goals and determine if their goals have been met.  Strategic learners understand that hard work produces good results and higher grades.

Non-Strategic Learners Characteristics

Non-strategic learners are impulsive, unorganized and have difficulty knowing where to begin.  They show problems with focusing and memory.  Non-strategic learners cannot break larger task into smaller steps.  Everything is a mountain for them.  They become easily frustrated, feel like a failure and have more anxiety than strategic learners. When things become difficult non-strategic learners lack the persistence to work through it.  They see their failures as a result of factors outside themselves that are due to uncontrollable factors such as luck or under someone else’s control (i.e. the test was too hard and not I needed to study more).

3.  Important Aspects of the Six Stages of Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD).   

            Each stage has other aspects but these are the most important aspects of each stage.  Stage three and stage five are the most important stages of the six.

            Stage One. The teacher needs to develop background knowledge on the students by assessing and understanding the student’s ability level to complete the task. A task can not be too easy or too difficult for a student.

            Stage Two.  The teacher discusses the strategy(s) with the students so they understand how and when to use the strategy(s). If a strategy is not used at the right time or the right situation the strategy will not be successful and the student will not use it.

            Stage Three. The teacher models the strategy for the student. Students need to understand how the strategy works in this given situation.

            Stage Four.  The teacher helps the student memorize the strategy. Students need to memorize the strategy so it becomes automatic and fluent.

            Stage Five. The teacher supports the student by offering positive feedback and then fading support until independent.  The goal is for a student to learn a strategy and be independent.

            Stage Six. The teacher provides practice to establish independence to maintain the strategy and to generalize to other activities.

4. Introducing the Self-Regulation Strategies, an Alternative Way

 While the teacher in the story started with setting a goal, you could start by introducing the class to positive statements and make it the theme of the class to always be positive. The students should also be taught to use resources around them by discussing in class what a student does if they run into difficulty, such as, repeating the steps, and raising your hand to ask a question. Once the goal and the steps to completing the goal are modeled by the teacher a written copy of the goal with each step listed can be given to the students.  Every time they reach or complete a step the students can check off the step (self-monitoring) and the teacher can give positive reinforcement by placing a star on a step completed well.  If a step is skipped or completed incorrectly the student should be encouraged to go back and repeat/complete the step. Positive re-enforcement should be given to each student when they reach the goal.  The goal can even be a class goal so students who naturally do well can encourage those who may need more assistance.  Steps along the goal can be adjusted if possible depending on the task for each child’s ability and level. After a student completes a goal they need to go back and check their steps and verbalize what they did well (steps with stars) and what steps they may need to work on. The goal and steps can be repeated each time and the student can monitor their process by counting the stars. 

The IRIS Center for Training Enhancements.(n.d.). Using learning strategies: Instruction to enhance student learning. Retrieved on Feb 16, 2011 from http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/srs/chalcycle.htm

Cognitive Learning Theories 2.1

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS

-Maturation of cognitive skills follows a sequential progression.

-“Maturation lags” 

-Developmental variations

-Cognitive growth occurs in series invariant and interdependent stages.

EXAMPLES FROM CLASSROOM

Stage 1: Exposure: Teacher gives lesson on noun phrases.

Stage 2: Grasping the knowledge: Student practices identifying noun phrases in sentences.

Stage 3: Independence: Student writes a noun phrase.

Stage 4: Application: Student uses noun phrases when writing a paragraph

 

BEHAVIORAL PSYCHOLOGY

  

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS

-Behavioral unit with antecedent event (stimulus), target behavior, and consequent event (reinforcement).

-Analyze task to determine sub skills. Place sub skills in order and sequence.

-Direct instruction/Explicit instruction.

Lesson: Write a 5 paragraph essay about your favorite place.

EXAMPLES FROM CLASSROOM

Step 1: Teach how to write an introductory paragraph. Student writes an introductory paragraph.

Step 2: Identify 3 points of why this is your favorite place.  Write a paragraph on each point.

Step 3: Teach how to write a concluding paragraphs. Student writes a concluding paragraph.

Step 4: Praise and give positive reinforcement at each step.

 

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS

-Cognitive processing of executive functioning, social perception, working memory, self-monitoring and  metacognition.

-Learn concepts of problem-solving skills, complex concepts, and how to organize information (metacognition)

EXAMPLES FROM CLASSROOM

Activity: Students will develop a graphic organizer on Urbanization in the late 1800’s in the U.S.

1. Teacher will ask students to write down all they know about Urbanization in the late 1800’s.

2. In small groups, students will combine information, research, and discussion information. Teacher will   guide discussions.

3. Students create a graphic organizer.

Theories of Learning 2.1

Theories of Learning          I have a kid who…..questions.           Chapter 5

1. If you were the principal, how would you answer the charge that is not fair that the students with learning disabilities had help studying for the test by the resource teacher?

                  All students were given the opportunity to study for the exam and they were not limited in asking each other for help. Everyone made a choice “how” they studied for the exam.

2. What role do you think motivation played in doing well in the test?

                  Motivation was a key element in the students’ success.  They were motivated to do well on the test because they liked Mr. Keene and his class.  Ms. Weiss, the resource teacher, also made it fun for the students to learn the material by braking it down into smaller parts, having group discussions, quizzing each other with made up questions from the material and by acting it out. By having fun and interesting activities the student stayed motivated to learn the material.

3. What strategies from this chapter did Ms. Weiss use in her teaching?

                  Ms. Weiss used several different strategies. The students first were active learners. Ms. Weiss used social interaction learning by having the students act out parts of the material.  Interactive dialogues were used when the students discussed the charts and pictures in the chapter, and when they wrote their own questions from the materials and quizzed each other. Ms. Weiss also taught strategies intervention skills by showing the students different ways to study the material.

Educational Settings Public vs Catholic Schools

An important concept for teaching student with learning disabilities is the environmental setting in which they are placed.  The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA-2004) requires that students with disabilities should be taught in the “least restrictive environment” as possible and preferable in the general education setting with the general education curriculum. This requires support and collaboration of all parties. Most schools in the Dallas Diocese have admissions standards that often limit and deny admissions of students with learning disabilities.  If a student is admitted the disability is usually mild. The Catholic schools that do not have long waiting lists for admissions receive more of the struggling student population but do not always have the resources to handle them.  The school that I teach at has a long history in the belief that all students are entitled to a Catholic Education. Bishop Dunne (BD) has had a Special Education teacher on staff for over thirteen years, a rare find in most Catholic schools in this diocese. While the diocese holds the belief of teaching the whole body of Christ, there are no diocesan standards in place for teaching students with learning disabilities but decisions are made at the school level.

            Placing students with learning disabilities in the general education setting is referred to “inclusion”.  The goal of inclusion is that student with disabilities are integrated in regular classes without labels and is as normal as situation as possible.  Inclusion must include a strong support system with resources and professional development, consideration of the students and family needs, and a commitment to the success of inclusion. Students at BD with disabilities are taught in inclusion with the same high standards of a college-prep program.

            Support and resources for teachers in the general educational setting for inclusion include participation in the IEP to understand a student’s strengths and weaknesses, smaller class sizes, and time for planning with a special education teacher.  Additional help may be provided by paraprofessional or classroom volunteers. Resources should include related professional such as speech therapists, psychologist, and occupational therapist. General education teacher should also be given time to attend training on special education issues.  In the state of Texas IEPs are not written for students in the private schools. Parents are entitled to evaluations and some resources through the local school district such as assistive technology then plans are written.  Catholic schools with student with disabilities write their own service plans. BD’s plans are call “Instructional Accommodations” and they are based on parent input, teacher input and diagnostic testing. Students must be diagnosed with a learning disability. General education teachers are in-serviced on special education strategies and interventions yearly.

            Collaboration is an important component in inclusion:  Collaboration with the special education teachers and the resource teacher that a student may attend part of the day; Collaboration between teachers who share in the teaching time of a student by teaching different subjects or in coteaching; and collaboration with parents. Collaboration should consider mutual goals, voluntary and equal participation, shared responsibility and decision making, and responsibility for outcomes. Collaboration is the key to inclusion in a college-prep curriculum.  Besides collaborating between the teachers, parents, support staff and student we often refer to outside resources.

            At times full inclusion may not be the best setting for a student and a different setting may be needed.  This concept is referred to as “continuum of alternative placements”. Placement besides the general educational classroom may include resource rooms, separate classes, separate schools, residential facilities, and homebound or hospital settings. It is important when choosing the best setting to remember that the setting in not the treatment but what occurs within the setting with emphasis on the kinds of instruction and opportunities that are available. While most diocesan schools do not have separate classes, students may benefit from resource room and labs.

            The U.S. Department of Education (2008) show that 87% of students with learning disabilities are serviced in general education classes.  Alternative settings for students with disabilities should be selected on the least restrictive setting as possible.  Resource rooms provide educational services on a regular scheduled portion of a day based on need, but not more than 60% of the day. Resource rooms provide flexibility in curriculum, number of students in the room or program and time of involvement. Separate classes are classrooms outside of the general education class room where a student spend 60% or more of their day.  They are small, individualized and closely supervised. Students maybe place in separate classroom by their various disability, or clustered. These are student with more serious or severe disabilities.

Special schools are educational facilities for student with disabilities.  Most are private schools that are expensive, require traveling and lack opportunities with the general education population.  Advantages are resources and program for students with disabilities that may not be found elsewhere.  Residential facilities provide fulltime placement and programs for severe disabilities.  The disadvantage is that students are not only removed from the general educational setting but also the family and community setting.  Homebound and hospital setting are used for student with medical conditions that need services schools can not provide. One-on-one instruction is not an identified setting but a type of instructional setting that can be very successful.  One-on-one instruction shows academic improvement by meeting individual needs, and intense instruction over time.

            The diocese does have a separate school for students with mental limitations. BD has designed special classes for cluster of students with specific needs, but those changes yearly as the needs change. These classes are very small in size and are not known to the general population. All teachers must tutor but based on need we may have one-on-one tutoring when needed.  This year we have a writing lab several days a week that students meet with the writing teacher one-on one to reinforce skills and work on assignments. BD has a fulltime resource lab that is run by a special education teacher.  At BD when we have students on homebound or hospitalization they continue classes through our online curriculum and all students have access to our online academic assistance.

            Options for students with disabilities may include high school diploma options. Laura Kaloi, Director of the National Center for Learning Disabilities Policy and Dr. Martha Thurlow, Director of the National Center on Educational Outcomes (December 7, 2010) spoke on options for student with learning disabilities.  The graduation rate for students in the U.S. is 75% and the LD graduate rate is 61% (U.S. Department of Education, 2008-2009). Because of low graduation rates in students with disabilities and because many states require high school exit exams that students with disabilities can not pass states are using different diploma options.  Student with diplomas are provided different opportunities beyond high school than students without. Options include regular diplomas, advanced/honors diplomas, certificates of completion, IEP and special education diplomas, but each state differs.  Texas Catholic schools graduate with a regular state diploma but the credits are above the state requirement.  Private schools student are not required to pass a state exam but may be required to take a placement exam at the college level.  While our student graduate above the state requirement, in certain circumstances those requirements may be lifted, but first all students are required to attempt the high standards. I presently have a request to the diocese to allow a state minimum graduation diploma for a student who has Aspergers and can not complete the full requirements. This will be a first.

            Beyond the educational setting the family system is important. Teacher must understand the family structure and cultural and linguistic diversity they bring to the situation. IDEA-2004 strengthened parental rights in the educational process. Parents have the right to request placement in the least restrictive environment, request an evaluation and reevaluation and in the language the child knows best, notification in change in child placement, participation in the IEP process and informed consent, and to be informed of their child’s progress as often as other children. Parents and students are involved in the planning process at BD.  The meeting may be conducted in Spanish if needed. BD does not have a diagnostician but must seek local or private testing and parents do not have a right to request placement.

            A child’s educational setting should be in the least restrictive environment while still meeting their needs. Many families choose Catholic schools for the high standards and the inclusionary setting of all their students.  While the child with learning disabilities is in the general educational setting they and the teacher will need lots of support and resources, including resource room and labs, and specialized classes or on-line curriculum if needed. Collaboration is a must between teachers, support staff and families of student with disabilities to be successful in the educational setting. BD and some Catholic schools provide many of the resources, services, and settings that are required in the public schools, but there are no requirements or standards set by the diocese, but are individual school decisions.

Resources

Learner, J.W. & Johns, B.H., (2009). Educational settings and the role of the family.  In Learning disabilities and related mild disabilities. (12^th ed., pp 109-133).  Belmont:Wadworth.

Kaloi, L. & Thurlow, M., (2010). High school diploma options and students with learning disabilities.  On National center for learning disabilities [recorded]. Retrieved from http://www.leadcolorado.org.

           

           

           

Clinical Teaching 1.3

Clinical Teaching

            Clinical teaching is teaching that involves assessment and instruction together and continuously. A clinical teacher assesses the current level of a student, designs instruction, teaches, evaluates, and makes adjustments based on the data.  Clinical teaching is a continuous cycle that requires flexibility, readjustment, instruction that focuses on the unique needs of the student, and can be accomplished in a variety of settings. Clinical teaching is a method of strategies to teach student with learning disabilities.

            So how does the clinical teacher teach students with varied backgrounds, skills and interests all in the same class?  Differentiated instruction allows a teacher to use a student’s strengths and weaknesses to find the best way to help a student be successful in the classroom while still having high expectations. Differentiated instruction involves flexibility, a multitude of strategies, and an array of instructional approaches. The three approaches discussed are cognitive processing, direct instruction and mastery learning, and psychotherapeutic teaching. 

            Cognitive processing involves the processes of the brain. The seven processes are fluid intelligence and how one dealing with a new task, crystallized intelligence and how one uses their general knowledge, short term memory and the ability to remember current information, long-term memory and the ability to store and retrieve information, visual and auditory processing involving the ability to process visual and auditory stimuli, and processing speed and how well one can perform tasks automatically and fluently. A cognitive approach involves understanding a student’s cognitive processing difficulties and designing strategies to compensate for those weaknesses.

            The direct instruction and mastery learning approach is a step by step approach of the curriculum, where each step is taught and mastered before moving to the next step. Continuous monitoring and feedback is given to the student along the way. Clear goals are set, and time is given for instruction and mastery.  This approach is most often used for basic skills where the previous step is necessary for the next step to be successful while leading to master of the task.

            Psychotherapeutic teaching involves the student’s feelings and a strong positive relationship with the teacher.  This approach must also focus on teaching the needed skills and curriculum while building self-confidence. 

            While the teacher can do little about factors linked to a learning disability the teacher needs to use a variety of teaching approaches, accommodate the student and modify with in the classroom.  One way to accommodate a student is by adjusting the reading difficulty level. Students may fail a task because the skill level is too high.  A teacher may need to modify the student space by using screens and quiet corners for removing distractions or adjusting the paper size and desk size for poor fine motor skills. Time can be adjusted by shortening a lesson, breaking it into smaller steps or providing frequent breaks.  Assignments can be shortened or extra time given to complete the task.  The teacher may need to adjust his/her language by speaking slower, repeating themselves, and using fewer words and less complex sentences.

            Students with learning disabilities often have poor self-esteem and motivation after years of failure.  Clinical teaching involves building strong relationships that are sincere, providing activities that involve student interests, and creating activities that provide for success while giving continuous praise and positive reinforcement. Students with disabilities are motivated like any other child.  Eight areas that motivate children are the need to know, to have independence, to be important, the need to assert themselves, to have friends, to belong, to control, and to be recognized. Judith Halden, Parents Perspective: The Social and Emotional World of Children with LD from the National Center for Learning Disabilities spoke on how often the social isolation and social struggles of a child with learning disabilities is harder for a parent to take than academic failure.  Children with LD have less classroom successes that help foster social acceptance and that some of the same skills they are lacking academically such as slow processing make it difficult to keep up with the demands of a conversation or to understand a joke. Ms. Halden stated children with LD needed to be encouraged to socialize and preferably in activities they do well in and in non-competitive situations.  It also helps to practice doing different things and to teach figures of speech so that they can understand what they mean and participate successfully in conversations with their peers.

            Additional instruction strategies for general education may include peer tutoring involving same-age or cross age tutoring, explicit teaching where the teacher clearly states what is to be done and provides a model; active learning where the student is actively involved in the learning environment, the materials and the learning; scaffolding where the teacher provides support at the initial stages as the task is learned then slowly pulls back.  To scaffold, the student must have some prior knowledge and understanding of the material. Reciprocal teaching involves social interaction with the students where the teacher models the strategies by summarizing, asking questions, and predicting outcomes.  The student then responds out loud demonstrating the steps on their own. Learning strategies instruction teaches the student to be successful by teaching students how to study, how to use new materials, how to monitor their own learning and how to problem solve and how to predict outcomes. Teaching executive functioning helps students learn to organized, plan, and prioritize tasks and to evaluate themselves along the way.

            Clinical teaching involves differentiated instruction, varied teaching approaches,

accommodating and modifying where needed, building self-esteem and motivation, and using instructional strategies in the general education classroom. Clinical teachers are effective teachers who are sensitive and enthusiastic about teaching all children by providing situations and activities for the unique needs of each child.

Resources

Learner, J.W. & Johns, B.H. (2009). Clinical Teaching.  In Learning disabilities and related mild disabilities. (12^th ed., pp75-107).  Belmont:Wadworth.

Halden, J. (2010). Parents perspective: The social and emotional world of children.  On National center for learning disabilities [recorded]. Retrieved from http://www.leadcolorado.org.